An increasing proportion of the population is exposed to climate change, either directly through climate events or indirectly, as individuals who receive information regarding the phenomenon through the media. Recent studies have detected an increase in the number of people concerned about how this threat will affect the planet and their lives. Based on the transactional model of stress, developed by psychologists Lazarus and Folkman (1987), it is evident that, when faced with the threat of climate change, people use different strategies to cope with stress (in this case, caused by this phenomenon). The strategies used include avoidance, minimisation, attempts to change or, alternatively, acceptance of the stressful situation. Understanding and studying these strategies is important, because people’s well-being depends on them. In the case of climate change, it has been confirmed that concern can motivate people to be proactive in seeking solutions. However, in certain individuals their concern is very high, to the point that it interferes in their everyday activities: this describes a pathological condition called climate anxiety. One of the factors that contributes towards constructive management of concern – so that it does not develop into anxiety – is hope. In stressful situations, hope emerges when the person perceives that a solution to the problem exists and is achievable. Concern and hope are the result of the individual’s assessment of the stressful situation and, therefore, they are influenced by factors that are both internal (for example, personality and own values) and external (among others, culture).

However, concern and hope are determined by the knowledge that is needed in order to be able to assess the risk posed by the threat, in this case, climate change. For this reason, how knowledge is linked with concern and hope in the Spanish population was analysed. For this, two age groups were compared. Firstly, that made up of young people aged 16 to 25 years, representing late adolescents and emerging adults. This is a life stage during which identity and social roles are forged, and it is marked by many uncertainties, characteristics which make this a particularly vulnerable population. Secondly, the survey was conducted among a population of early adults, aged between 26 and 40 years, a life stage characterised by an already consolidated identity and greater stability. The primary objective was to confirm how the Spanish population is responding to the challenge of climate change and to attempt to answer a series of questions: Are proactive strategies taking the form of climate action? Does knowledge about climate change influence these strategies? Is the response of younger people different because of the pressure they may feel as a generation of the future and one responsible for tackling the challenge of building a more sustainable world?

The study conducted shows that awareness of the problem of climate change is high. Of 1,404 people surveyed, only four claimed they had never heard of climate change. The perception that climate change is posing a threat to our society is a cause of great concern. Participants’ concern was measured based on four questions: two enabled us to inquire about concern due to negative effects on each individual and their loved ones (a dimension termed micro concern), and the other two, about concern for future generations and nature (a dimension termed macro concern). Across both age groups, the level of macro concern is higher than the level of micro concern. Women claim that they are more concerned in both dimensions. When comparing the results between the two age groups, it is observed that the level of concern is lower among the younger participants.


 

Coping with stress is a dynamic process involving emotions and processes of reasoning. In the case of the climate crisis, hope has been identified as key to maintaining well-being and motivation to act. According to Snyder’s (2002) hope theory, hope is the belief that the future can improve and that we have the capacity to achieve this. It involves optimism, motivation, strategy, and personal confidence. In the study on which this article is based, hope was analysed based on six statements with which respondents indicated their degree of agreement or disagreement, such as: “If we all work together, we can solve the problems associated with climate change”, and “I am prepared to act to solve the problems caused by climate change”. Based on their responses, the results reveal that their level of hope is relatively high. In contrast with concern, hope shows little variation with age or gender. Furthermore, the results show that among the Spanish people surveyed, concern and hope are correlated: those people who are more concerned also feel more hope. Three groups were identified according to their levels of concern and hope: low, medium, and high. Only 18.1% of emerging adults and 15.4% of early adults are in the group showing little concern and little hope, meaning that the majority show medium or high levels of concern and hope. 


 

Individual mitigation actions, in such areas as transport, energy efficiency, and responsible consumption, are essential for reducing concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG). In the study, participants were asked to rate, on a scale of 0 (never) to 10 (very frequently), how frequently they undertook different mitigation actions. Different studies show that concern and hope, among other factors, can motivate pro-environmental behaviours. This study shows that people with high levels of concern and hope undertake mitigation actions more frequently. The actions that are most frequently undertaken are related to sustainable mobility, such as using public transport more and travelling less by plane. Reducing meat consumption for pro-environmental reasons is the action least undertaken, and it is where most differences were observed between the different groups. Comparing the two age groups, early adults score higher in all categories, except in the use of public transport. 


 

According to experts from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), individual changes could reduce GHG emissions by between 40% and 70%. However, many people underestimate the impact of energy-saving measures. The majority opt for low-impact actions, such as recycling, but avoid more effective ones, such as reducing flights, living without a car, or adopting a plant-based diet. 

In the study, participants were asked about their perception of the effectiveness of different mitigation actions. More education about climate change was rated as the most effective action, with an average score of 7.9 out of 10. This supports the idea that climate education is fundamental in this crisis, as it promotes critical thinking and motivates individual and collective action. Using modes of transport that pollute less also obtained a high rating (average of 7.0). In comparison with consumption of plant-based products, meat consumption generates more GHG emissions. Reducing its consumption, therefore, is another mitigation strategy. However, the results of this study indicate that, in Spain, there is little conviction that decreasing meat consumption can help reduce GHG, with an average score of 4.9. Women score higher than men, while late adolescents and emerging adults score slightly lower than early adults. 


 

Climate change is a highly complex phenomenon. Climates, regional and global alike, depend on numerous biophysical processes. These are convoluted, and interconnected through feedback mechanisms. To support and implement adaptation and mitigation measures, it is vital to understand the problem, in order to see that action is needed and is urgent. 

In the study conducted, twelve questions were posed to find out people’s degree of knowledge about climate change and whether greater knowledge is associated with undertaking climate actions. It is observed that people who undertake climate actions more frequently also scored higher on knowledge. Another characteristic of this group of people is that they show greater trust in scientists and political actors who can drive change.


 

The people who took part in the study are aware of climate change and, in the main, they are concerned about how this problem may affect nature and other living beings. To a lesser extent, they are also concerned about how it may affect them personally and their loved ones. Women show higher levels of concern than men, an outcome consistent with observations across different global surveys. Despite the fact that late adolescents and emerging adults have been identified as a particularly vulnerable population with regard to climate concern and anxiety, the study conducted shows slightly lower levels in this age group.

The high levels of concern demonstrate that climate change is perceived as a threat to the well-being of the planet and of people. Concern and hope coexist; people who are concerned also experience hope and believe that solutions are possible and achievable. Three groups of people have been identified within the population based on their levels of concern and hope: one group of people with little concern and little hope, another with intermediate levels and a third group with high levels. The large majority of people (over 80%) are in the intermediate and high groups. 

People with a combination of concern and hope undertake more climate actions. Climate action is a behaviour that helps manage concern and it emerges from the identification of climate change as a threat. Among the Spanish people surveyed, the most proactive are also characterised by having greater knowledge about the problem and more trust in external actors. The data from the study suggest that greater knowledge about the problem of climate change influences each person's assessment of the climate change situation. Trust in external actors is essential for fuelling a positive reassessment of a situation initially perceived as concerning. Although political actors play a prominent role in the implementation of mitigation measures, the population studied shows greater trust in scientists to contribute to solutions.

Although the results obtained offer valuable insights into the Spanish population’s emotions, knowledge, and behaviours regarding climate change, the study on which this article is based has certain limitations that must be taken into account when interpreting its conclusions.

Firstly, environmental performance indexes are based on self-reported responses, which can introduce social desirability biases. Secondly, while an effort has been made to include a representative sample in terms of age and gender, the study does not explore other relevant sociodemographic variables, such as education level, socioeconomic context, or geographic location, which could significantly influence perceptions and behaviours related to climate change. The study’s conclusions refer to the two age groups considered (16-25 years and 26-40 years) and cannot be extrapolated to other age ranges. 

Finally, the cross-sectional design of the study does not allow causal relationships to be established. Although associations between concern, hope, knowledge, and climate action are observed, it is not possible to determine with any certainty the meaning of these relationships. Future longitudinal research could help to clarify these links and analyse in greater depth the evolution of attitudes and behaviours in relation to climate change.

FERRARI, E., et al. (2024). “Improvement of attitudes and skills using a MOOC about the basic science of climate change”, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11(1).
LAZARUS, R. S., & FOLKMAN, S. (1987). “Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping”, European Journal of Personality, 1(3).
LI, C., & MONROE, M. C. (2018). “Development and Validation of the Climate Change Hope Scale for High School Students”, Environment and Behavior, 50(4).
OJALA, M. (2013). “Coping with Climate Change among Adolescents: Implications for Subjective Well-Being and Environmental Engagement”, Sustainability, 5(5).
SNYDER, C. R. (2002). “TARGET ARTICLE: Hope Theory: Rainbows in the Mind”, Psychological Inquiry, 13(4).